Greek and Roman Practical Philosophical Traditions: Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism
Introduction to Practical Philosophy
In ancient Greek and Roman thought, philosophy was not just a theoretical discipline but “a way of life… aimed at relieving suffering and shaping and remaking the self according to an ideal of wisdom” . Practical philosophy refers to this lived, action-guiding aspect of philosophy, particularly the branch of ethics concerned with how one should live. Whereas theoretical philosophy dealt with abstract questions (metaphysics, logic, natural science), practical philosophy focused on guiding conduct and attaining eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness) in daily life. Hellenistic and Roman philosophers increasingly emphasized practical guidance, offering philosophies as therapies for the soul. As Epicurus famously declared, “Vain is the word of that philosopher which does not heal any suffering of man” , underscoring that philosophical teachings should alleviate human distress. The major schools of the late Greek and Roman period—Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism—exemplified practical philosophy by providing cohesive approaches to ethics, personal well-being, and the attainment of tranquility. Each of these traditions proposed a way of life: a set of principles and exercises to achieve peace of mind and virtue amidst life’s challenges. In what follows, we will explore the ethical teachings and approaches to human flourishing of Stoicism (through the works of Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus), Epicureanism (as taught by Epicurus), and Skepticism (in the Pyrrhonian philosophy of Sextus Empiricus). We will also consider the influence and contemporary relevance of these traditions for modern conceptions of well-being and life philosophy.
Stoicism: Ethics, Flourishing, and Practice
Marble bust of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, a Stoic philosopher (British Museum) . Stoicism originated in Athens around 300 BCE, founded by Zeno of Citium, and later flourished in Rome where figures like Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE), Epictetus (c. 50–135 CE), and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) became its notable exponents . As a school of practical philosophy, Stoicism taught that living virtuously is both necessary and sufficient for happiness . In Stoic ethics, virtue (aretê) — encompassing wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance — is regarded as the sole intrinsic good, while external things like health, wealth, or reputation are “indifferents” in themselves . Such externals are not true sources of happiness; they are preferable or dispreferable indifferents (having relative value in life), but one’s well-being does not ultimately depend on them . What matters is one’s inner character and the rational judgments one makes. The Stoics defined happiness (eudaimonia) as a life in accordance with nature, meaning a life aligned with right reason and virtue . By “following nature,” they implied living in harmony with the rational order of the cosmos and with human nature as a reasoning, social being . This naturalistic vision of ethics grounded their view that virtue is the only true good and the key to human flourishing.
Stoic ethical teaching was fundamentally practical and aimed at daily application. As the Roman Stoics stressed, the point of philosophical inquiry was to become a better person and achieve peace of mind . Epictetus, a former slave turned Stoic teacher, famously said that “the philosopher’s lecture room is a hospital” — philosophy is a medicine for the soul, often uncomfortable in application but meant to cure our unhealthy passions . Accordingly, Stoicism provided concrete exercises and disciplines for self-improvement. One of the best-known Stoic strategies is the dichotomy of control: distinguishing between what is up to us (our own thoughts, attitudes, and actions) and what is not up to us (external events and outcomes) . Epictetus begins his Enchiridion by reminding students that “Some things are up to us, other things are not” , advising that serenity comes from focusing only on what lies within one’s control (our moral choices) and accepting the rest with equanimity. Stoics also advocated training one’s judgments to align with reason: if an external misfortune occurs, one should remember that it is one of those “indifferents” and not intrinsically evil, and thus refrain from distressful judgment about it. Marcus Aurelius’s Meditations exemplify this approach – a series of private reflections in which the emperor-philosopher practices viewing hardships through a Stoic lens (e.g. reminding himself that death or insult cannot truly harm his character, only his response can) . Such exercises helped Stoics maintain inner stability and virtue amid adversity.
A core aspect of Stoic ethics is its approach to the passions (pathê). Far from advocating emotional suppression in the modern sense of being “stoic,” the ancient Stoics sought to cultivate appropriate emotions and eradicate irrational or excessive passions. They used the term apatheia to mean freedom from destructive passions – not numbness, but a state where one’s emotional life is governed by reason. For instance, feeling natural affection or concern is acceptable, but falling into crippling fear or anger stems from false judgments (e.g. believing that something evil has happened when it is only an indifferent). By correcting our judgments, we prevent undue emotional turmoil. Seneca, in his letters and essays, often discusses practical techniques for moderating the passions – such as foreseeing future troubles to lessen their sting (a practice of negative visualization) or recalling the transient nature of difficulties . In one essay he writes, “Bring the mind to bear upon your problems”, suggesting that rational reflection can dissolve anxieties . Overall, Stoicism’s approach to human flourishing centers on inner virtue, rational agency, and resilience: a flourishing person is one who lives with wisdom and moral integrity, unperturbed by externals, and fulfills their natural social duties calmly and justly .
The lives and writings of Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus illustrate Stoic ethics in action. Marcus Aurelius, as a ruler facing immense responsibilities, used Stoic philosophy to guide just and compassionate leadership, reminding himself to act without vanity or bitterness even under pressure. Seneca, advisor to Emperor Nero, wrote extensively about applying philosophy to everyday challenges – from managing time and wealth to dealing with grief – showing the Stoic ideal of philosophy as medicine for the soul. Epictetus, teaching as a freedman in Nicopolis, trained students in practical wisdom, often emphasizing that hardship itself can be an opportunity to exercise virtue. Despite their different contexts, all three taught that human flourishing (eudaimonia) is attainable by anyone through the cultivation of virtue and reason. As the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy notes, Stoicism “was very much a philosophy meant to be applied to everyday living”, a framework in which ethics – “the study of how to live one’s life” – was the paramount component of philosophy . By focusing on what truly lies under our control (our choices and attitudes) and viewing externals with perspective, Stoics maintained that one could achieve abiding tranquility and resilience in the face of life’s vicissitudes.
Epicureanism: Pleasure, Tranquility, and the Simple Life
Marble bust of Epicurus (341–270 BCE), founder of Epicureanism, from a 2nd century CE Roman copy (Vatican Museums) . Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus in the late 4th century BCE, was another influential practical philosophy of antiquity. Epicurus established The Garden in Athens as a small community of friends dedicated to living out his teachings, which spread throughout the Hellenistic world . The Epicurean goal of life was happiness (eudaimonia) understood as ataraxia, a state of tranquility or freedom from fear and distress . Unlike the Stoics, who grounded happiness in virtue, Epicurus famously taught that pleasure (hêdonê) is the highest good and the aim of life. His ethics is characterized as a form of hedonism, in that it asserts pleasure to be the only intrinsic good and pain the only intrinsic evil . However, Epicurus’s hedonism was nuanced and “idiosyncratic”, leading him to champion a surprisingly moderate and virtuous lifestyle as the surest path to maximum pleasure .
For Epicurus, pleasure meant not an endless pursuit of luxuries or sensual indulgence, but rather the absence of pain and anxiety in the body and mind. The highest form of pleasure was a stable, tranquil state (sometimes called static pleasure) where one’s basic needs are satisfied and no distress is felt . He distinguished between “moving” pleasures (active gratifications when a desire is being fulfilled, like eating when hungry) and “static” pleasures (the contentment when a desire is fully satisfied and one is free from want) . Epicurus regarded the static pleasure of tranquility as superior, even suggesting it might be more accurate to call him a “tranquillist” rather than a hedonist . The key to happiness, in Epicurean teaching, is to maximize pleasure in the long run, which entails minimizing pain and avoiding destructive desires. This leads to a life of simplicity, prudence, and friendship rather than excess. Epicurus advised that by understanding the nature of pleasure, “one should forgo short-term pleasures if they lead to greater pain, and willingly endure slight pains if they secure greater pleasures over time” . This calculated approach is sometimes called hedonic calculus – weighing outcomes to choose a net pleasurable life course rather than immediate gratification.
Epicurus placed great emphasis on eliminating the chief causes of human anguish: irrational desires and irrational fears. Desire, if unchecked, can lead to endless dissatisfaction, so Epicurus taught a disciplined approach to desire. He categorized desires into three types: natural and necessary (basic needs like food, shelter, companionship), natural but not necessary (luxuries that one can live without, like rich foods), and vain or empty desires (for power, wealth, fame, immortality, etc.) . Happiness is best achieved by fulfilling the natural necessary desires (which are easy to satisfy and bring genuine comfort) while eliminating the vain desires . Extravagant or artificial desires for status and luxury tend to be limitless and foster anxiety, so the wise Epicurean simplifies their needs. “If you wish to make Pythocles wealthy, don’t give him more money; rather, reduce his desires”, Epicurus counseled . By wanting only what one truly needs, a person can more readily obtain satisfaction and remain content. This ethic of moderated desire results in a life of modest consumption, appreciating simple pleasures—like wholesome food, the beauty of nature, conversation with friends—which are both easy to attain and sufficient for comfort. In fact, Epicurus himself lived on bread, water, and the occasional pot of cheese, claiming that luxury added little to a mind already at peace.
The other side of Epicurean therapy is addressing fears that disturb the mind, particularly the fear of the gods and fear of death. Epicurus, a strict materialist, taught that the gods (if they exist) are made of atoms like everything else and live in perfect bliss, completely unconcerned with human affairs. Therefore, we should not fear divine punishment or worry about placating capricious deities . He also offered a famous argument to dispel the fear of death: when we exist, death is not present, and when death comes, we no longer exist to experience anything—thus death “is nothing to us.” In Epicurus’s view, death is simply the end of sensation and consciousness, so it should not be feared as a harm . By removing superstition and the dread of an afterlife, one can live more fully in the present, free from existential anxieties. Epicurus encapsulated his core advice in the Tetrapharmakos, or “four-part remedy,” a summary of four curing insights: “Don’t fear god; Don’t worry about death; What is good is easy to get; What is terrible is easy to endure.” . This succinct wisdom urged people to stop fearing imaginary terrors (angry gods or death), and to recognize that the ingredients of happiness (basic needs, simple joys) are readily obtainable, while life’s pains are usually tolerable and fleeting. Physical pain, Epicurus noted, is either brief or chronic; if brief, it ends quickly, and if chronic, it generally is manageable and does not ruin all pleasure . Such reasoning was meant to soothe the mind and foster ataraxia.
In practice, Epicureanism advocated a quiet life of gentle pleasures, intellectual contemplation, and friendship. Epicurus himself valued friendship so highly that he reportedly said wisdom is worthless without a friend to share one’s life. The Epicurean communities were like small fraternities of like-minded individuals who found great joy in companionship and philosophical conversation. Friendship was considered one of the greatest means of attaining pleasure because friends provide mutual support, security, and enjoyment . Epicurus also praised the virtues—like prudence (practical wisdom), moderation, and justice—as instrumental goods: they are not good in themselves, but living virtuously tends to produce a life of greater overall pleasure . For example, justice (living honestly and treating others fairly) removes the fear of punishment and the turmoil of a guilty conscience, thus contributing to tranquility. Likewise, moderation ensures one is content with little and avoids the turmoil that excess and greed bring. In summary, Epicurus’ ethical teaching held that human flourishing is a state of sustainable pleasure, defined chiefly by inner peace (freedom from fear) and bodily comfort (absence of pain). Achieving this state required wise self-restraint, cultivation of meaningful relationships, and the use of rational understanding to dispel harmful anxieties. By following these principles, Epicureans believed anyone could live like a god on earth—experiencing a steady joy that comes from simplicity, insight, and peace of mind.
Skepticism: Sextus Empiricus and the Pursuit of Tranquility through Doubt
18th-century etching portraying Sextus Empiricus (University Library, Leipzig), the primary reporter of Pyrrhonian Skepticism . Ancient Skepticism, especially in the Pyrrhonian tradition documented by Sextus Empiricus (c. 2nd–3rd century CE), represents a practical philosophy that seeks mental calm through the suspension of judgment. While Stoics and Epicureans offered positive doctrines, the Skeptics advocated methodical doubt: they questioned whether we can attain certain knowledge about the deep nature of reality or the gods, and they refrained from committing to definite beliefs on contentious matters. Sextus Empiricus, a Greek physician-philosopher, is our major source on Pyrrhonian Skepticism through his work Outlines of Pyrrhonism. He explains that the Skeptic follows the example of Pyrrho of Elis (c. 4th century BCE) in withholding assent from dogmatic claims and continually investigating arguments on all sides . The hallmark of Pyrrhonian Skepticism is the ability to find for any given claim an equally compelling counter-claim – a state of equipollence of arguments . Faced with equally balanced reasons to affirm or deny something, the Skeptic chooses to suspend judgment (a state known as epoché). This suspension is not an end in itself but a means to an end: the Skeptics discovered that by ceasing to dogmatically insist on uncertain beliefs, the mind attains tranquility (ataraxia) . As Sextus puts it, the Skeptic’s investigative skill, applied universally, “will bring about suspension of judgment on any issue…and ultimately, tranquillity.” In other words, when one stops the restless need to resolve every unknown and accepts things as they appear without added belief, one’s soul becomes unperturbed.
The goal of Skepticism is explicitly therapeutic: “ataraxia (freedom from disturbance) in matters of opinion” . Skeptics observed that most mental anguish arises from dogmatic beliefs—fears, desires, and frustrations attached to the idea that things must be a certain way. By suspending belief, especially about non-evident matters, one eliminates this source of disturbance. An ancient summary stated that as a result of suspending judgment, freedom from disturbance will follow as a shadow . This metaphor suggests that tranquility naturally accompanies the Skeptic who has let go of rigid opinions. Sextus Empiricus notes that the Skeptic’s practice has three stages or “moments”: (1) equipollence of opposing arguments, leading to (2) epoché (suspension of judgment), which yields (3) ataraxia (peace of mind) . Importantly, Skeptics do not claim that one should not hold beliefs dogmatically as a dogma itself (to avoid self-contradiction); rather, they report it as an experience: “We always say that as regards belief the Skeptic’s goal is ataraxia…and that as regards things that are unavoidable it is moderate feeling”, acknowledging that one still experiences involuntary sensations like pain, but without the added distress of belief that such pain is absolutely evil . Thus, the Skeptic aims for a condition where intellectually one is undisturbed (ataraxia), and physically one endures what cannot be escaped with measured response (metriopatheia).
Sextus Empiricus and the Pyrrhonians emphasized a practical criterion of action despite suspending theoretical judgments. They did not lapse into total inertia or apathy. Instead, they advocated “living in accordance with appearances” . In everyday life, the Skeptic follows ordinary perceptions, instincts, and societal customs without believing any elaborate metaphysical interpretation of them. For example, a Skeptic will feel hunger and eat (following nature’s prompting), will observe local laws and norms (following customs), and will pursue what seems beneficial and avoid what seems harmful, but all without asserting that these actions are grounded in any absolute truth about value. Sextus argued that by doing so—by living practically as things seem but suspending any anxiety-producing beliefs about how things must be—one can live happily and calmly . He cites earlier skeptics like Timon and Aenesidemus approvingly: those who follow Pyrrho’s philosophy will be happy, whereas dogmatists entangle themselves in endless worry trying to justify their convictions . The Skeptic’s ethics, in effect, is to have no strict ethical dogma—they do not claim virtue is the sole good or pleasure the sole good; rather, they claim ignorance on ultimate questions of good. Yet paradoxically, this stance leads to a distinctive way of life: one of moderation, open-mindedness, and mental peace. By not presuming any particular external condition is required for happiness, the Skeptic remains unruffled by fortune’s changes, focusing only on the immediate way things appear and gently going along with them.
Sextus Empiricus’s works Outlines of Pyrrhonism and Against the Professors are filled with skeptical arguments against the claims of other schools (Stoics, Epicureans, dogmatic scientists, etc.), intended to show that for every philosophical or scientific “truth,” an opposing case can be made. For instance, against Stoic claims of a providential universe, the Skeptics marshal evidence of disorder; against claims of certain knowledge, they cite the fallibility of the senses and endless disagreements of experts . The result of these critiques is not to establish a new truth, but to induce epoché in the reader – to help one realize that taking any absolute stance may be unwarranted. Sextus even counseled that skepticism is a kind of mental health treatment: one might begin dogmatically searching for answers, become frustrated by contradictions, and then fortunately stumble upon skepticism, which cures the anxiety by removing the insistence on finding an answer . In summary, Pyrrhonian Skepticism offers a practical philosophy of life where peace of mind is achieved not through acquiring knowledge or pleasure, but through recognizing the limits of knowledge and withdrawing assent from vexing beliefs. Sextus Empiricus stands as a guide to this paradoxical path: by doubting certainty and “going with the flow” of appearances, one can attain a stable, undisturbed happiness. This skeptical way of life emphasizes intellectual humility and ongoing inquiry (zetesis), and its success is measured by the tranquility and freedom from dogmatic anxiety that the skeptic enjoys.
Contemporary Relevance and Influence
The practical philosophies of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Pyrrhonian Skepticism have proven enduring, influencing both later philosophical thought and modern approaches to well-being and psychology. Each of these ancient schools, in its own way, prefigured insights that are echoed in contemporary movements focused on the art of living. In recent years, there has been a marked revival of interest in Stoicism, in particular, as a guide to personal resilience and mental health. Stoic teachings have influenced modern psychotherapy—most notably, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), which recognizes its debt to Stoic ideas . Pioneers of CBT such as Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck drew on the Stoic insight that our emotions largely result from our beliefs or interpretations of events. Ellis frequently quoted Epictetus’s dictum that “Men are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them.” By helping patients identify and correct irrational judgments (a method akin to Stoic practice), CBT mirrors Stoicism’s therapeutic aim of alleviating distress through cognitive reframing. Indeed, the early 21st-century revival of Stoicism explicitly connects the philosophy to modern self-improvement and psychotherapy, with authors and practitioners using Stoic exercises (negative visualization, journaling, voluntary discomfort) to build resilience . Organized events like “Stoic Week” and publications by contemporary philosophers and psychologists have further cemented Stoicism’s modern reputation as a “practical philosophy” for life’s challenges . In academia, philosophers such as Martha Nussbaum and Pierre Hadot have highlighted how Stoic techniques can contribute to emotional well-being by cultivating an attitude of mindfulness and virtue. Thus, Stoicism’s legacy is vividly seen in today’s focus on personal ethics, resilience training, and rational emotional management.
Epicureanism’s influence on modern thought is more subtle but still significant. While the term “Epicurean” colloquially came to mean indulgence in fine food or luxury, this is a misinterpretation of Epicurus’s teaching. In fact, Epicurean ideas anticipated aspects of secular humanism and positive psychology. Epicurus was one of the first thinkers to propose a completely naturalistic worldview, denying divine wrath and an afterlife, which prefigures the modern secular understanding of life and death. His argument that death is not to be feared remains a cornerstone in contemporary discussions of death anxiety; many people still find comfort in Epicurus’s logic when confronting the idea of mortality. Furthermore, Epicurus’s insight that chasing ever-more wealth and status leads to anxiety, and that simple pleasures and friendships yield the most happiness, resonates strongly with modern research in psychology and economics that shows excess consumption fails to proportionally increase well-being. The minimalist and “downshifting” movements, which advocate reducing material desires to focus on what truly matters, reflect a broadly Epicurean spirit. Modern well-being science emphasizes gratitude, savoring small joys, work-life balance, and community—ideas the Epicureans pioneered by living modestly in a garden with close friends. There have even been modern groups and writings reviving Epicurean philosophy (for example, the Society of Friends of Epicurus) aiming to apply his teachings as a kind of therapeutic philosophy for stress in the modern age. Additionally, elements of Epicurean thought influenced Enlightenment thinkers and utilitarians. The English philosopher Jeremy Bentham’s principle of seeking “the greatest happiness for the greatest number” echoes the hedonistic calculus, although Epicurus himself focused on individual tranquility rather than social utility. In summary, Epicureanism contributes enduring ideas about rational pleasure-seeking, the importance of reducing fear, and finding happiness in simple, obtainable goods, which continue to inform conversations about living a contented life.
Pyrrhonian Skepticism, for its part, left a complex legacy that has influenced modern epistemology and even therapeutic techniques of detachment. During the Renaissance and early modern period, Sextus Empiricus’s works were rediscovered and had a profound impact on thinkers like Michel de Montaigne and David Hume, who in turn shaped modern philosophy. Montaigne adopted the skeptics’ motto “What do I know?” and found that accepting one’s intellectual limitations can bring a certain peace and tolerance. This idea feeds into modern notions of intellectual humility and the avoidance of dogmatism. In the realm of science, a moderated skepticism became foundational—scientific method involves suspending premature judgments and demanding evidence, a mindset encouraged by Pyrrhonian doubt about assumptions. Though scientific skepticism is more methodologically bounded than Pyrrhonian global doubt, the shared spirit is questioning certainty to avoid error. In terms of psychological well-being, one might draw parallels between ancient Skepticism and mindfulness practices. Just as the Skeptic learns to observe appearances without attaching judgments, modern mindfulness meditation trains individuals to observe thoughts and feelings without clinging or aversion, which often leads to greater emotional tranquility. Some scholars have noted that the Skeptical practice of epoché (suspension of evaluations) resembles the mindful approach of labeling thoughts as thoughts, not absolute realities—both aimed at freedom from disturbance. Furthermore, the Skeptical emphasis on living by everyday experience rather than abstract doctrines aligns with an outlook in modern existential therapy: to engage with life directly, without imposing rigid narratives, often reduces anxiety and increases openness. While there is no large-scale “Neo-Skeptic” movement akin to modern Stoicism, the Pyrrhonian legacy persists in the value placed on open-minded inquiry and the idea that letting go of dogmatic attachments can alleviate inner turmoil.
In the grand scheme, the practical philosophies of antiquity continue to offer “spiritual exercises” (to use Hadot’s term) for modern souls. Whether it is a professional applying Stoic resilience under pressure, an individual finding contentment through Epicurean simplicity, or someone cultivating a serene agnosticism about life’s uncertainties in a Skeptical vein, these ancient schools still speak to timeless concerns. Each tradition has informed modern philosophies of life: for example, Stoicism has influenced contemporary virtue ethics and self-help literature; Epicureanism informs discussions on happiness and secular ethics; Skepticism contributes to the ethos of critical thinking and acceptance of uncertainty. By maintaining a neutral, reflective stance, we can appreciate how Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics—despite their differences—jointly affirm that philosophy in the classical sense is practical wisdom. It is a guide to living better, managing one’s desires and fears, and ultimately achieving a form of inner freedom. Modern thinkers and therapists continue to mine these rich traditions, validating the ancients’ insight that philosophy, when actively practiced, can indeed be “the art of living” conducive to human flourishing .
References (Chicago Style)
• Annas, Julia. The Morality of Happiness. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
• Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations, translated by Gregory Hays. New York: Modern Library, 2002.
• Becker, Lawrence. A New Stoicism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.
• Epicurus. “Letter to Menoeceus,” in Diogenes Laertius: Lives of Eminent Philosophers, vol. II, translated by R. D. Hicks. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1925.
• Epictetus. Discourses and Enchiridion, translated by A. A. Long. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Hadot, Pierre. What Is Ancient Philosophy? Translated by Michael Chase. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002.
• Long, A. A., and D. N. Sedley. The Hellenistic Philosophers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
• Nussbaum, Martha C. The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
• Sedley, David. “Epicureanism,” in The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, edited by K. Algra et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
• Sextus Empiricus. Outlines of Scepticism, edited by Julia Annas and Jonathan Barnes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Seneca. Letters on Ethics (Letters to Lucilius), translated by Margaret Graver and A. A. Long. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015.
• Sorabji, Richard. Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Striker, Gisela. “Ataraxia: Happiness as Tranquility,” The Monist 73, no. 1 (1990): 97–110.
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Entries on “Stoicism” , “Epicurus” , “Ancient Greek Skepticism” .
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Entries on “Ancient Ethical Theory,” “Stoicism,” “Epicurus,” “Sextus Empiricus” .
• World History Encyclopedia – Cartwright, Mark. “Epicurus Bust, Vatican Museums” (2016) ; Amin, Osama S. M. “Bust of Marcus Aurelius” (2016) ; Horváth, Ibolya. “Sextus Empiricus” (2022) .